Superconductor

The history of superconductors spans over a century and has led to significant advancements in the field of physics and technology. A superconductor is a material that exhibits zero electrical resistance and the expulsion of magnetic fields when it is cooled below a critical temperature. In other words, it can conduct electric current without any loss of energy due to resistance, and it can also expel magnetic fields from its interior. This phenomenon is known as superconductivity. Superconductors have numerous practical applications, including in the construction of powerful magnets for medical devices like MRI machines, high-speed electronic circuits, and potentially even in energy transmission and storage systems. Superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon that was first discovered in certain metals and has since been observed in various materials, including ceramics and some specialized compounds.

Discovery of Superconductivity (1911):

Superconductivity was first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch physicist, in 1911. He was conducting experiments to liquefy helium when he observed that the electrical resistance of mercury dropped to zero at temperatures below 4.2 Kelvin (-268.95°C or -452.11°F).

Early Discoveries and Research (1911-1930s):

Researchers like John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer developed the BCS theory of superconductivity in 1957, which explained the behavior of conventional (low-temperature) superconductors. This theory is still widely accepted today. During this time, several superconducting materials were discovered, including lead, niobium, and tin.

Liquid Helium Era (1950s-1960s):

The early era of superconductivity research mainly focused on low-temperature superconductors that required liquid helium for cooling. This limited their practical applications due to the high cost and difficulty of maintaining such low temperatures.

High-Temperature Superconductors (1986):

A major breakthrough came in 1986 when IBM researchers Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller discovered a new class of superconductors that exhibited superconductivity at significantly higher temperatures. Their discovery involved copper oxides, specifically La-Ba-Cu-O compounds, which became known as "high-temperature superconductors." These materials could operate at temperatures above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (-196°C or -321°F), making them more practical for various applications.

Further Research and Applications:

High-temperature superconductors sparked intense research, leading to the discovery of various other families of materials with similar properties. Superconductors found applications in various fields, including medical imaging (MRI machines), particle accelerators, power transmission, and more. Researchers continued to work on increasing the critical temperatures (Tc) of superconductors, as well as developing practical methods for producing and using them.

Iron-Based Superconductors:

In 2008, a new class of superconductors called "iron-based superconductors" was discovered. These materials also exhibit superconductivity at relatively high temperatures, although not as high as some high-temperature cuprate superconductors.

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AI Technical Trustability Update

While working on an update to my RF Cafe Espresso Engineering Workbook project to add a couple calculators about FM sidebands (available soon). The good news is that AI provided excellent VBA code to generate a set of Bessel function plots. The bad news is when I asked for a table showing at which modulation indices sidebands 0 (carrier) through 5 vanish, none of the agents got it right. Some were really bad. The AI agents typically explain their reason and method correctly, then go on to produces bad results. Even after pointing out errors, subsequent results are still wrong. I do a lot of AI work and see this often, even with subscribing to professional versions. I ultimately generated the table myself. There is going to be a lot of inaccurate information out there based on unverified AI queries, so beware.

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