See Page 1 |
2 |
3 | 4 | of the March 2024 homepage archives.
Friday the 22nd
Thursday the 21st
Wednesday the 20th
Tuesday the 19th
Monday the 18th
It's been a while since I posted a new set
of
electronics-themed comics from vintage magazines. These three appeared in a
1964 issue of Radio-Electronics. The page 37 comic shows the wife asking
a presumably inane question, but in fact there were duo-whatever vacuum tubes that
were the inclusion of a pair of single tube types, usually with a 12.6 V heater
voltage. A well-known example is the 12AX7, which is essentially a pair of 6AV6
triode tubes. Besides that, there was both a 6SN7 and a 12SN(X)7 tube, the former
with a 6.3 V heater and the latter with a 12.6 V heater. Here's a question
for you: What is that thing on the floor to the right of the box of vacuum tubes
in the page 37 comic?* The page 72 comic is not so far-fetched. I have no doubt
that somewhere in the world - multiple places and times, likely - people have heated
or cooked something in front of a microwave communications dish...
A lot has been in the news recently about
Russia's new
hypersonic glide vehicle capable of delivering nuclear (and conventional) warheads
across the globe at over than Mach 20 (14,822 mph) in the atmosphere. That's
4.1 miles per second. From a 150 mile high apogee, that's less than 40 seconds from
space to target. Not even a high power laser can stop that. The
great circle path from Siberia to San Francisco is 5,900 miles, for a flight
time of less than a minute after launch phase. Moscow to D.C., (4,900 miles) takes
a little less
time. Here is a recent interview
with Putin on Russia's state of the union regarding social, economic, and military
issues - including hypersonic weapons. Oh, and they're not fixing their low birth
rate by importing felons, psycho patients and
cannibals from the third World. Interestingly, he addresses the rampant embezzlement
schemes that U.S. defense contractors and their management perpetrate. Sure, a lot
is propaganda, but so is what comes out of Washington.
As with nearly things electronic, innovations
in
radar systems that were ground-breaking a few decades ago are now available
commercially at a small fraction of the cost, a much more compact size, and much
greater performance and reliability. Radar operators during World War II noticed
that they were able to detect strong rainstorms demonstrating that signals did not
necessarily need a metallic object to be reflected strongly enough to be received
and processed. Research began soon thereafter to build radars optimized for detecting
weather phenomena. Early weather radars were "simple" reflective types that indicated
distance, height, and speed (by comparing successive samples). Doppler radar was
developed next, adding a much greater capability to characterize particular weather
systems according to intensity, direction, rotation (hurricanes , tornadoes), composition
(ice, snow, rain, etc.), speed (average and gust), and other parameters...
everything RF has published an eBook titled
"RF
Filter Digest 2024." This eBook is crafted to be a comprehensive resource for
anyone looking to learn about the current-generation RF Filters. With the introduction
of new wireless technologies, the frequency spectrum is getting very crowded. To
maintain seamless operation among these technologies without interference, RF Filters
play an integral role. RF Filters are crucial in optimizing signal transmission
and reception, selectively allowing desired frequencies to pass through while attenuating
unwanted signals. The "RF Filter Digest 2024" eBook discusses the challenges involved
with 5G mmWave filtering, high-rejection LTCC filter performance, the role of MMIC
filters in developing next-generation systems, and the impact of BAW filters on
5G applications. This eBook also includes an exciting section that discusses filter
design in the Cadence AWR design environment...
Each month I used to post a list of articles
with advice on career enhancement including tips on preparing resumes, conducting
yourself properly at interviews, getting along well with co-workers, handling a
difficult boss, etc. I also posted links to polls and studies done on career
satisfaction, pay rates, education and experience levels, years in the field, etc.
Those types of articles have been around since Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable
type printing press. In the 1970s, Popular Electronics magazine ran a series
of articles titled "Opportunity
Awareness" that offered such advice, much of which in principle is still valid
today. One of the biggest advantages you can give yourself when job hunting is a
willingness to relocate to a new area - even if you need to pay for the move yourself.
I moved many times during my career and before getting my BSEE, paid my own moving
expenses as a technician...
RF Cascade Workbook is the next phase in the evolution of RF Cafe's long-running
series, RF Cascade Workbook. Chances are you have never used a spreadsheet
quite like this (click
here for screen capture). It is a full-featured RF system cascade parameter
and frequency planner that includes filters and mixers for a mere $45. Built in
MS Excel, using RF Cascade Workbook is a cinch and the format
is entirely customizable. It is significantly easier and faster than using a multi-thousand
dollar simulator when a high level system analysis is all that is needed...
Friday the 15th
There are many online
Fresnel Zone calculators. Most do the basic calculation for the maximum radius
of the Fresnel Zone for
a given frequency and separation between antennas. Some allow you to enter an obstacle's
distance from one of the antennas, and its height, then lets you know if the obstacle
falls within the Fresnel Zone. Very few plot the shape of the Fresnel Zone, and
even less include an obstacle positioned on the plot. Most rare are calculators
which take the curvature of the Earth into account. RF Cafe's
Espresso Engineering Workbook includes a Fresnel Zone calculator incorporating
all those features - and more...
This "What's
Your EQ?" (EQ = Electronics Quotient) from a 1967 issue of Radio−Electronics
magazine offers just two challenges to your circuit analysis prowess. The first,
"Voltage Booster," is a classic black box (although I colored it blue) mystery where
you are supposed to figure out what is inside that produces the stated output given
a stated input. Spoiler: You'll need to be familiar with vacuum tube characteristics
in order to solve it. Unlike with many such circuits, a simple mental substitution
of a field effect transistor will not do the job. You might as well not even try
"Shifted Tuning" unless you have hands-on experience with tuning mechanisms of the
era. Just go straight to the answer, and gain an appreciation for advancements in
radio technology. Guys like Mac McGregor dealt with this kind of phenomenon on a
regular basis...
LadyBug Technologies'
LB5975W
is 50 GHz to 75 GHz a high accuracy, platform independent RF & Microwave
Power Sensor for general purpose average power or True RMS and scalar measurements.
The sensor features exceptionally fast measurement speed, a broad dynamic range,
and the widest set of options for programmatic and embedded applications in the
industry. LadyBug's feature rich Power Meter Application is provided with each sensor.
Time domain trace visibility is included and aids in setting markers. The sensor
is useful in research & development, manufacturing & service applications
including radar, satellite and telecommunications. Highlights include coverage from
50 to 75 GHz, accurate power measurements on any modulated signal, dynamic
range: -50 to +18 dBm, Just Measure - patented NoZero NoCal before use technology,
and a variety of options such as triggering, security & analog outputs...
If you are a seasoned reader of episodes
of "Mac's
Service Shop," you might have noticed that the stories almost always begin with
either Mac or Barney commenting on the weather, which corresponds to the time of
year in which the story was originally published. Note the reference to the "bleak,
cold November morning" in this 1972 edition of Popular Electronics magazine. This
time around, the boss and trusty employee discuss the value of electronics kits,
Heathkits in particular. BTW, Heathkit is now making an impressive comeback into
the kit realm with new designs. Manuals for some of the more popular vintage Heathkit
projects are available again, which are a welcome thing to collectors. They also
are producing some replacement assemblies, like for replacing old Nixie tube displays
with LEDs (of course most people would probably rather have replacement Nixie tubes).
Back in the 1970s, before everything we bought was assembled in far away lands using
pseudo-slave labor, it was often less expensive to buy a kit of parts and put together
you own television or radio. It was also an era when electronics service shops still
did a brisk business fixing appliances, and building such devices were part of the
schooling process for up−and−coming technicians. Every study−at−home electronics
course included a color television, AM/FM stereo, and even build−it−yourself...
"Researchers with Chinese telecommunications
giant Huawei spent three years developing the technology for its
foldable phone screens, drawing inspiration from the impact-absorbing qualities
of starches under certain conditions. Huawei's technical team told the Post that
the resilience of its Mate X3 and X5 phones stemmed from the unique properties of
a flexible inner screen beneath the scratch-resistant outer surface. The material
- which took more than 100 experiments to develop - is based on a phenomenon that
turns starch solution in the right proportions into a non-Newtonian fluid that acts
like water but hardens into a solid under sudden impact..."
By the early 1970s, many types of vacuum
tubes had already been replaced by solid state devices. A lot of the resistance
by hardline lovers of glowing tubes was beginning to accept the reality of superior
electrical characteristics of many types of germanium and silicon diodes and transistors
over tube equivalents. During my enlistment in the USAF from 1978-1982, the vacuum
tube diode used to trigger the pulse forming network for the airport surveillance
radar (ASR) circuit was replaced with a plug-in solid state replacement. It seemed
to work just as well. I don't recall ever having to replace the faulty vacuum tube
version, so I cannot attest to whether the solid state version was an improvement.
Part of the motivation for replacing tubes with solid state devices was obsolescence
of the tubes, so maybe that is why it was done. The "fetrode"
introduced here by Solitron Devices in this 1973 issue of Popular Electronics
magazine was designed to be a plug-in replacement for the 6AK5 vacuum tube, which
is a pentode amplifier. Although not specifically stated, I assume the name "fetrode"
implies it was a field effect transistor (FET)...
RF Cascade Workbook is the next phase in the evolution of RF Cafe's long-running
series, RF Cascade Workbook. Chances are you have never used a spreadsheet
quite like this (click
here for screen capture). It is a full-featured RF system cascade parameter
and frequency planner that includes filters and mixers for a mere $45. Built in
MS Excel, using RF Cascade Workbook is a cinch and the format
is entirely customizable. It is significantly easier and faster than using a multi-thousand
dollar simulator when a high level system analysis is all that is needed...
|
Beginning in the 1960s, Popular Electronics
magazine had a long-running column titled "Solid
State" that reported on the newfangled science. Even in 1970, there were still
people who distrusted solid state electronic devices in terms of reliability and
ruggedness. Their skepticisms were not totally without merit at the time. However,
advances were occurring at a very rapid rate. This particular Solid State report
describes how charge coupled devices (CCD) might someday serve as photographic imagers
because of their efficiency at converting photon impingement to electric charge
in potential wells and the subsequent serial shifting of the data to an output port.
It also raves at the development by Motorola of RF power transistors (40 W)
that exhibited useful gain way up into the 25 MHz realm...
There's not a much better way to wrap up
a work week than to read through a short technohumor (I just made up that word)
novel by
Carl Kohler or John T. Frye. Reading a few technocomics (another made-up
word) by various illustrators is a great resource, too. This story, which appeared
in a 1970 issue of Popular Electronics magazine, is another episode in
the life of technotinkerer (a "Maker" in today's lingo) Kohler (who also drew a
lot of the technocomics) and his skeptical helpmeet (for good reason) "Friend-Wife,"
as he unveils his repurposed homebuilt UNIversity computer...
With less than 24 hours left in winter
this year (vernal equinox is April 19th at 11:06 pm EDT), I figured I had better
get this
snowflake
article posted now. It appeared in the 1986 edition of The Old Farmer's Almanac
(OFA). That's not a publication targeting old farmers, btw. For many decades, I
was a faithful purchaser and reader of the OFA, but sometime in the early 2000s,
the nature of its contents changed pretty significantly and I lost my interest.
I've got enough vintage issues with sunrise and sunset, moonrise and moonset,
and high and low tides tables that I don't need newer versions. Besides, all
that up-to-the-minute information is available online. But I digress... We've
all been told about how no two snowflakes are alike - like fingerprints - and
that it has something to so with static electric charges as the flake is formed.
Even so, just like DNA controlling how living cells divide and reproduce with
and without symmetry, the creation of a snowflake's unique symmetry is and
variation is magical...
Banner Ads are rotated in all locations
on the page! RF Cafe typically receives 8,000-15,000 visits each
weekday. RF Cafe
is a favorite of engineers, technicians, hobbyists, and students all over the world.
With more than 17,000 pages in the Google search index, RF Cafe returns in
favorable positions on many types of key searches, both for text and images.
Your Banner Ads are displayed on average 280,000 times per year! New content
is added on a daily basis, which keeps the major search engines interested enough
to spider it multiple times each day. Items added on the homepage often can be found
in a Google search within a few hours of being posted. If you need your company
news to be seen, RF Cafe is the place to be...
RF Cascade Workbook is the next phase in the evolution of RF Cafe's long-running
series, RF Cascade Workbook. Chances are you have never used a spreadsheet
quite like this (click
here for screen capture). It is a full-featured RF system cascade parameter
and frequency planner that includes filters and mixers for a mere $45. Built in
MS Excel, using RF Cascade Workbook is a cinch and the format
is entirely customizable. It is significantly easier and faster than using a multi-thousand
dollar simulator when a high level system analysis is all that is needed...
With more than 1000
custom-built stencils, this has got to be the most comprehensive set of
Visio Stencils
available for RF, analog, and digital system and schematic drawings! Every stencil
symbol has been built to fit proportionally on the included A-, B-, and C-size drawing
page templates (or use your own page if preferred). Components are provided for
system block diagrams, conceptual drawings, schematics, test equipment, racks, and
more. Page templates are provided with a preset scale (changeable) for a good presentation
that can incorporate all provided symbols...
It was a lot of work, but I finally finished
a version of the "RF &
Electronics Schematic & Block Diagram Symbols"" that works well with Microsoft
Office™ programs Word™, Excel™, and Power Point™. This is an equivalent of the extensive
set of amplifier, mixer, filter, switch, connector, waveguide, digital, analog,
antenna, and other commonly used symbols for system block diagrams and schematics
created for Visio™. Each of the 1,000+ symbols was exported individually from Visio
in the EMF file format, then imported into Word on a Drawing Canvas. The EMF format
allows an image to be scaled up or down without becoming pixelated, so all the shapes
can be resized in a document and still look good. The imported symbols can also
be UnGrouped into their original constituent parts for editing...
With more than 1000
custom-built symbols, this has got to be the most comprehensive set of
Visio Symbols
available for RF, analog, and digital system and schematic drawings! Every object
has been built to fit proportionally on the provided A-, B- and C-size drawing page
templates (or can use your own). Symbols are provided for equipment racks and test
equipment, system block diagrams, conceptual drawings, and schematics. Unlike previous
versions, these are NOT Stencils, but instead are all contained on tabbed pages
within a single Visio document. That puts everything in front of you in its full
glory. Just copy and paste what you need on your drawing...
This assortment of custom-designed themes
by RF Cafe includes T-Shirts, Mouse Pads, Clocks, Tote Bags, Coffee Mugs and Steins,
Purses, Sweatshirts, Baseball Caps, and more, all sporting my amazingly clever "RF Engineers - We Are the World's Matchmakers"
Smith chart design. These would make excellent gifts for husbands, wives, kids,
significant others, and for handing out at company events or as rewards for excellent
service. My graphic has been ripped off by other people and used on their products,
so please be sure to purchase only official RF Cafe gear. I only make a couple bucks
on each sale - the rest goes to Cafe Press. It's a great way to help support RF
Cafe. Thanks...
The newest release of RF Cafe's spreadsheet
(Excel) based engineering and science calculator is now available -
Espresso Engineering Workbook™. Among other additions, it now has a Butterworth
Bandpass Calculator, and a Highpass Filter Calculator that does not just gain, but
also phase and group delay! Since 2002,
the original Calculator Workbook has been available as a free download.
Continuing the tradition, RF Cafe Espresso Engineering Workbook™ is
also provided at no cost,
compliments of my generous sponsors. The original calculators are included, but
with a vastly expanded and improved user interface. Error-trapped user input cells
help prevent entry of invalid values. An extensive use of Visual Basic for Applications
(VBA) functions now do most of the heavy lifting with calculations, and facilitates
a wide user-selectable choice of units for voltage, frequency, speed, temperature,
power, wavelength, weight, etc. In fact, a full page of units conversion calculators
is included. A particularly handy feature is the ability to specify the the number
of significant digits to display. Drop-down menus are provided for convenience...
One aspect of advertising on the RF Cafe
website I have not covered is using
Google AdSense.
The reason is that I never took the time to explore how - or even whether it is
possible - to target a specific website for displaying your banner ads. A couple
display opportunities have always been provided for Google Ads to display, but the
vast majority of advertising on RF Cafe is done via private advertisers. That is,
companies deal with me directly and I handle inserting their banner ads into the
html page code that randomly selects and displays them. My advertising scheme is
what the industry refers to as a "Tenancy Campaign," whereby a flat price per month
is paid regardless of number of impressions or clicks. It is the simplest format
and has seemed to work well for many companies. With nearly 4 million pageviews
per year for RFCafe.com, the average impression rate per banner ad is about 280k
per year (in eight locations on each page, with >17k pages)...
Carl & Jerry: How to Haunt a House
The Field-Effect Transistor
Mac's Service Shop: Single Sideband for the CB'er
Mac's Service Shop: A New TV Antenna
Mac's Service Shop: Leakage Current Testing and Using Square Waves
Mac's Service Shop: Electronics and the Energy Crisis
Radio Craft 2015 search
June 1969 P-E, Kohler p40
August 1969, Hobnobbing Harbaugh p68
Radio Craft 2015 search
June 1969 P-E, Kohler p40
August 1969, Hobnobbing Harbaugh p68
|
Is it my imagination, or does this tower
have a tilt to it? Since it's meant to demonstrate autonomous erection of communications
towers on the moon, I hereby dub it the Leaning Tower of Luna. "In a scenario
meant to mimic the lunar surface,
four robots cooperatively built a five-meter communications tower, including
antenna - and then disassembled it, simulating not only the construction of such
a structure but maintenance and sustainable operations for lunar infrastructure
development. Robotics company Gitai's Lunar Rover and three of its 'Inchworm' robots
achieved the build, which the company called 'groundbreaking' and a first of its
kind. Japanese operator KDDI was also a partner on the project, providing specifications
and information about their mobile phone base stations that allowed Gitai to develop
an antenna suited for robotic construction. Gitai's robotics were selected late
last year to be part of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)'s
10-Year Lunar Architecture capability study..."
"MIT's breakthrough in integrating 2D materials
into devices paves the way for next-generation devices with unique optical and electronic
properties.
Two-dimensional materials, which are only a few atoms thick, can exhibit some
incredible properties, such as the ability to carry electric charge extremely efficiently,
which could boost the performance of next-generation electronic devices. But integrating
2D materials into devices and systems like computer chips is notoriously difficult.
These ultrathin structures can be damaged by conventional fabrication techniques,
which often rely on the use of chemicals, high temperatures, or destructive processes
like etching. A New Integration Technique To overcome this challenge, researchers
from MIT and elsewhere have developed a new technique to integrate 2D materials
into devices in a single step while keeping the surfaces..."
Seriously, someone should have wiped that
smashed spider off the die before the photo was taken ;-) "Researchers at the University
of Michigan have made what is in effect a very agile ruler using a novel
sub-THz radar technique, and reported it last week at the International Solid-State
Circuits Conference. Its 235 GHz antennas and the core active components are
integrated on a single IC, and across a desktop it measures the range to a target
with sub-mm accuracy, even if the object is moving at 600 m/s - twice the speed
of sound. These core components implement a 'self-injection-locking' oscillator,
which exploits the sometimes undesirable effect of oscillator 'pulling' where varying
the load on an oscillator alters its frequency. The oscillator in this case is a
differential second-harmonic Colpitts and it is attached to a slot antenna..."
"Researchers from the US National Institute
of Standards and Technology (NIST), the University of Colorado Boulder, the NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the California Institute of Technology, the University
of California Santa Barbara, the University of Virginia and Yale University have
developed a
chip that converts light into microwaves. The chips reduce timing jitter to
15 femtoseconds making the signals more stable and precise in ways that could increase
radar sensitivity, the accuracy of ADCs and the clarity of astronomical images captured
by groups of telescopes. Researchers have taken what was once a tabletop-size system
and shrunk much of it into a chip, about the same size as a digital camera memory
card. Reducing timing jitter on a small scale reduces power usage and makes it more
usable in everyday devices. Right now, several of the components for this technology..."
"Binghamton University Professor Seokheun
Choi sought to investigate his ideas about
integrated papertronics. A new research paper published in Advanced Sustainable
Systems reports his latest findings - and they could revolutionize how we monitor
the world around us. 'The biggest problem with paper for electronics is that the
paper is highly porous and rough,' said Choi, a faculty member in the Thomas J.
Watson College of Engineering and Applied Science's Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering. 'These properties are very helpful for paperfluidics, because
those devices require high surface area and roughness - but for electronics, they
pose a critical challenge.' To mitigate some of those issues, most previous papertronics
have used laminated paper with electronic components affixed to them. That method
maintains the flexibility that paper has but does not fully utilize what the material
offers. Choi worked with Ph.D. students Zahra Rafiee and Anwar Elhadad as part of
the Bioelectronics and Microsystems Laboratory to develop a solution that takes
advantage of paper's attributes, combining functional inks, the capillary action..."
"In April 2007, the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency demonstrated the ability to refuel a satellite in orbit - equipping
a spacecraft with a robotic arm, docking it to another spacecraft and transferring
nearly 32 pounds of hydrazine into its fuel tank. The mission, known as Orbital
Express, was full of technology firsts, according to Fred Kennedy, who led the project
for DARPA. Along with demonstrating the first-ever
in-space refueling operation, the U.S. mission showcased the ability to use
tracking and imaging sensors to attach to a receiving satellite and perform maintenance,
such as swapping out a battery or replacing a flight computer. 'The big deal was
autonomy,' Kennedy told C4ISRNET in a Feb. 27 interview. 'We were able to show sort
of a push-button approach to getting up close and personal to a spacecraft and delivering
a variety of servicing capabilities.' But four months after it took flight, the
Air Force and NASA - DARPA's mission partners for the effort — pulled the plug on
the program. The project, conceived to support a space-based radar program that
was canceled before Orbital Express even got off the ground, lacked a clear mission
application, according to the Air Force and NASA. Orbital Express undergoes testing
in space. (U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) The outcome wasn’t particularly
surprising for DARPA, whose projects often explore technologies that are ahead of
their time..."
"A research team from the Helmholtz-Zentrum
Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR) and the University of Salerno in Italy has discovered
that thin films of elemental bismuth exhibit the so-called
non-linear Hall effect, which could be applied in technologies for the controlled
use of terahertz high-frequency signals on electronic chips. Bismuth combines several
advantageous properties not found in other systems to date, as the team reports
in Nature Electronics. Particularly: the quantum effect is observed at room temperature.
The thin-layer films can be applied even on plastic substrates and could therefore
be suitable for modern high-frequency technology applications. 'When we apply a
current to certain materials, they can generate a voltage perpendicular to it. We
physicists call this phenomenon the Hall effect, which is actually a unifying term
for effects with the same impact, but which differ in the underlying mechanisms
at the electron level. Typically, the Hall voltage registered is linearly dependent
on the applied current,' says Dr. Denys Makarov..."
I wonder if this this is an actually representative
of the SmallSat mentioned in the article. It looks like someone Photoshopped a set
of PV panels on a standard subsystem module package. "Terran Orbital Corporation
has made a significant move into the geosynchronous orbit (GEO) small satellite
market with its unveiling of the
SmallSat GEO solution, designed for satellites weighing over 500kg. This cutting-edge
solution will be showcased at the upcoming SATELLITE 2024 trade show from March
18-21 at the Walter E. Washington Convention Center, Washington D.C., featuring
an immersive augmented reality experience. The SmallSat GEO solution is specifically
crafted for the communications sector, capable of operating in geosynchronous orbit
to deliver unprecedented power and performance, a demand that has surged in the
GEO sector's gradual shift towards smaller satellites. Leveraging a state-of-the-art
94,000 sq. ft. manufacturing facility equipped with advanced automation in both
construction and testing, along with the experience gained from three prior GEO
missions..."
"A National Institute for Materials Science
(NIMS) research team has developed the world's first
n-channel diamond MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor).
The developed n-channel diamond MOSFET provides a key step toward CMOS integrated
circuits for harsh environment applications, as well as the development of diamond
power electronics. The research is published in Advanced Science. Semiconductor
diamond has outstanding physical properties such as ultra wide-bandgap energy of
5.5 eV, high carriers mobilities, and high thermal conductivity, which is promising
for the applications under extreme environmental conditions with high performance
and high reliability, such as the environments with high temperatures and high levels
of radiation (e.g., in proximity to nuclear reactor cores). By using diamond electronics,
not only can the thermal management demand for conventional semiconductors be alleviated
but these devices are also more energy efficient and can endure much higher breakdown
voltages and harsh environments..."
|
These archive pages are provided in order to make it easier for you to find items
that you remember seeing on the RF Cafe homepage. Of course probably the easiest
way to find anything on the website is to use the "Search
RF Cafe" box at the top of every page.
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